Joseph Smith, the Burned-over District, and the Second Great Awakening: A Nexus of Revivalism, Reform, and Religious Innovation

To fully understand Joseph Smith and the origins of Mormonism, it is essential to examine not only his family life but also the broader social, cultural, and religious milieu in which he lived. Born in 1805 in Sharon, Vermont, Joseph Smith moved with his family to Palmyra, New York, in 1816, when he was just 11 years old. This move placed the Smith family in the heart of the Burned-over District, a region marked by intense religious revivalism and social reform during the Second Great Awakening. These forces profoundly shaped Smith’s formative years, contributing to his theological development and eventual establishment of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). However, Smith’s life and the religious movement he founded have also faced significant criticism and scrutiny, much of which is rooted in the unique dynamics of the Burned-over District and his family’s practices.

                  Burned-over District. Rural NY.

The Burned-over District: A Unique Religious Landscape

The Burned-over District in western and central New York was an epicenter of religious fervor, reform, and innovation during the early 19th century. The term, coined by evangelist Charles Grandison Finney, referred to the intense revivalist activity in the region, which he likened to a forest fire that had burned through every available resource, leaving “no more fuel to burn.” This description reflected the saturation of religious enthusiasm and the proliferation of new sects and movements in the area (Cross, 1950).

Geographical and Social Conditions

Several factors made the Burned-over District particularly fertile ground for revivalism and religious experimentation:

1. The Erie Canal and Economic Transformation:

   • The completion of the Erie Canal in 1825 brought rapid economic growth and migration to the region, transforming rural communities into bustling hubs of trade and commerce. However, this growth also created social instability and dislocation, as traditional community structures were disrupted.

   • Many settlers faced economic uncertainty and sought spiritual guidance to navigate the challenges of frontier life.

2. Frontier Mobility and Individualism:

   • The transient nature of frontier populations fostered a spirit of individualism and experimentation, which extended to religious practices. Without established church structures, many communities turned to revival meetings and charismatic leaders for spiritual sustenance.

3. Cultural Receptivity to Innovation:

   • The Burned-over District was home to a population that was open to new ideas and unafraid to challenge traditional religious doctrines. This cultural openness allowed movements like Mormonism, Adventism, and Spiritualism to take root and flourish.

Religious Revivalism in Practice

Revival meetings were a central feature of the Burned-over District, drawing large crowds to hear passionate sermons and participate in collective religious experiences. Evangelists like Charles Grandison Finney played a pivotal role in these revivals, emphasizing personal conversion, moral reform, and the democratization of religious authority (Walker, 2004).

Joseph Smith’s Formative Years in the Burned-over District

Joseph Smith’s upbringing in the Burned-over District placed him at the crossroads of revivalism, folk traditions, and religious experimentation. The unique spiritual climate of the region profoundly influenced his development, shaping the theological framework of Mormonism.

Economic Hardships and Family Struggles

The Smith family faced significant economic challenges, including the aftermath of the "Year Without a Summer" (1816) and the Panic of 1819. These hardships forced the family to relocate multiple times before settling in Palmyra, New York. The instability and poverty they experienced created a fertile ground for religious and mystical beliefs, as the family sought solace and meaning in spirituality (Bushman, 2005).

Folk Magic and Treasure-Seeking

Joseph Smith’s family, particularly his father, Joseph Smith Sr., engaged in folk magic and treasure-seeking practices, which were common in rural communities of the time. These practices included the use of divining rods, seer stones, and ritual prayers to locate hidden treasures. Young Joseph participated in these activities, gaining a reputation as a seer who could locate treasure through supernatural means (Quinn, 1998).

• Critics of Joseph Smith have often pointed to his involvement in folk magic as evidence that his later prophetic claims were influenced by regional mystical traditions rather than divine inspiration.

Revivalist Influences

The revivalist ethos of the Burned-over District, with its emphasis on personal revelation and direct communication with God, resonated deeply with Joseph Smith. His First Vision—in which he claimed to see God the Father and Jesus Christ—echoes the themes of individual spiritual encounters that were central to the revivalist movement (Bushman, 2005).

Religious Movements Emerging from the Burned-over District

                      The Fox sisters, key figures in the                            early spiritualism movement. The                            scene captures them engaged in a                            séance, with an eerie atmosphere                            that reflects the mysterious and                              supernatural nature of their work.

The Burned-over District was not only a site of revivalist activity but also a cradle for new religious movements. The unique cultural and spiritual dynamics of the region gave rise to several significant sects and traditions:

1. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormonism):

   • Founded by Joseph Smith in 1830, Mormonism blended evangelical themes with mystical elements, reflecting the district’s revivalist ethos and folk traditions. The Book of Mormon, published the same year, became the cornerstone of the movement and highlighted Smith’s ability to synthesize diverse religious influences.

2. Seventh-day Adventism:

   • Rooted in the Millerite movement, which predicted Christ’s imminent return, Adventism emphasized apocalyptic theology and moral reform. Its emergence in the Burned-over District underscores the region’s focus on eschatological themes.

3. Spiritualism:

   • The Fox Sisters, based in the Burned-over District, popularized spiritualism, a belief system centered on communication with the dead. This movement reflected the district’s openness to mystical and esoteric practices (Cross, 1950).

4. The Shakers:

   • The Shakers expanded their communal and celibate religious practices in the district, emphasizing simplicity, equality, and direct revelation. Their growth illustrates the region’s receptivity to alternative religious lifestyles.

Criticism of the Burned-over District’s Legacy

While the Burned-over District is celebrated as a site of religious innovation, it has also faced criticism for fostering an environment of religious fragmentation and unorthodoxy. Critics argue that the region’s emphasis on personal revelation and charismatic leadership undermined traditional theological frameworks and contributed to a proliferation of fringe movements.

• Joseph Smith’s Prophetic Claims: Skeptics have questioned the authenticity of Smith’s revelations, suggesting that his early involvement in folk magic and treasure-seeking undermines his credibility as a prophet (Quinn, 1998; Brodie, 1971).

• Emotionalism in Revivalism: The emotionally charged nature of revival meetings has been criticized for encouraging shallow conversions and undermining intellectual engagement with faith (Cross, 1950).

Conclusion

The Burned-over District represents a unique intersection of religious revivalism, social reform, and theological experimentation. Its intense spiritual energy and cultural openness shaped the development of movements like Mormonism, Adventism, and Spiritualism, leaving a profound impact on American religious history. For Joseph Smith, the district’s distinctive blend of revivalist fervor, folk traditions, and mystical practices provided the foundation for his prophetic claims and the creation of the LDS Church. However, the region’s legacy remains a subject of debate, as scholars and critics continue to grapple with the complexities of its influence on American religion and culture.

References

• Brodie, F. M. (1971). No man knows my history: The life of Joseph Smith. Alfred A. Knopf.

• Bushman, R. L. (2005). Joseph Smith: Rough stone rolling. Alfred A. Knopf.

• Cross, W. H. (1950). The burned-over district: A social and intellectual history of enthusiastic religion in western New York, 1800–1850. Cornell University Press.

• Quinn, D. M. (1998). Early Mormonism and the magic world view (Rev. ed.). Signature Books.

• Walker, R. L. (2004). Lucy Mack Smith and her influence on Joseph Smith’s theology. Journal of Mormon History.